Information Technology
Information technology (IT) is "the acquisition, processing, storage and dissemination of vocal, pictorial, textual and numerical information by a microelectronics-based combination of computing and telecommunications".[1] The term in its modern sense first appeared in a 1958 article published in the Harvard Business Review, in which authors Leavitt and Whisler commented that "the new technology does not yet have a single established name. We shall call it information technology.
General information Information and communication technology spending in 2005 IT spans a wide variety of areas that include but are not limited to things such as processes, computer software, computer hardware, programming languages, and data constructs. In short, anything that renders data, information or perceived knowledge in any visual format whatsoever, via any multimedia distribution mechanism, is considered part of the domain space known as Information Technology (IT).
IT professionals perform a variety of functions (IT Disciplines/Competencies) that range from installing applications to designing complex computer networks and information databases. A few of the duties that IT professionals perform may include data management, networking, engineering computer hardware, database and software design, as well as management and administration of entire systems. Information technology is starting to spread farther than the conventional personal computer and network technology, and more into integrations of other technologies such as the use of cell phones, televisions, automobiles, and more, which is increasing the demand for such jobs.
In the recent past, the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology and the Association for Computing Machinery have collaborated to form accreditation and curriculum standards[3] for degrees in Information Technology as a distinct field of study as compared[4] to Computer Science and Information Systems today. SIGITE[5] is the ACM working group for defining these standards. The Worldwide IT services revenue totaled $763 billion in 2009.
How to build a career in Computer Networking
Many view computer networking as an attractive career field. A few years ago, networking was one of the hottest fields around. Some claim now as then that a serious shortage of qualified people to fill these networking jobs exists. On the other hand, some also view networking as a relatively easy way to land an attractive position with a fast-growing company.
Debates over the actual extent of any job shortages aside, networking involves mostly hard work, and competition for the high-quality positions will always be strong. Continue reading to learn more about beginning or expanding a career in networking, and watch for valuable job-hunting tips that also apply to many other types of technical careers.
Some Words About Job Titles Several types of professional positions exist in computer networking, each with varying salaries and long-term career potential. Unfortunately, job titles in networking, and in Information Technology (IT) generally, often lead to confusion among beginners and experienced folks alike. Bland, vague or overly bombastic titles often fail to describe the actual work assignments of a person in this field. The basic job titles one sees for computer networking and networking-related positions include
"Candidate will be responsible for analysis, installation and configuration of company networks. Daily activities include monitoring network performance, troubleshooting problems and maintaining network security. Other activities include assisting customers with operating systems and network adapters, configuring routers, switches, and firewalls, and evaluating third-party tools." Needless to say, a person early in their career often lacks experience in a majority of these categories. Most employers do not expect candidates to possess in-depth knowledge of all areas listed in the job posting, though, so a person should remain undeterred by the long, sweeping job descriptions they will inevitably encounter The job function of a Network Engineer differs little from that of a Network Administrator. Company A may use one title while Company B uses the other to refer to essentially the same position. Some companies even use the two titles interchangeably. Firms making a distinction between the two often stipulate that administrators focus on the day-to-day management of networks, whereas network engineers focus primarily on system upgrades, evaluating vendor products, security testing, and so on.
A Network Technician tends to focus more on the setup, troubleshooting, and repair of specific hardware and software products. Service Technicians in particular often must travel to remote customer sites to perform "field" upgrades and support. Again, though, some firms blur the line between technicians and engineers or administrators.
Network Programmer/Analysts generally write software programs or scripts that aid in network analysis, such as diagnostics or monitoring utilities. They also specialize in evaluating third-party products and integrating new software technologies into an existing network environment or to build a new environment.
Managers supervise the work of administrators, engineers, technicians, and/or programmers. Network / Information Systems Managers also focus on longer-range planning and strategy considerations.
Salaries for networking positions depend on many factors such as the hiring organization, local market conditions, a person's experience and skill level, and so on.
Information Technology OutsourcingIn the United States, corporations plan to outsource many thousands of Information Technology (IT) jobs to outside firms. Most of these jobs will belong to so-called offshore organizations in India or Southeast Asia. The media buzz and corporate momentum around IT offshoring and outsourcing continues and shows no signs of abating.
As a current Information Technology professional in the U.S., or a student considering a future career in IT, outsourcing is a business trend you must fully understand. Don't expect the trend to reverse any time in the forseeable future, but don't feel powerless to cope with the changes either.
Changes Coming with Information Technology Outsourcing Ten years ago, workers were attracted to the Information Technology field given the
How to Cope with Information Technology Outsourcing IT workers in the U.S. are already witnessing some impacts of IT outsourcing, but the future impacts will possibly be even greater. What can you do to prepare? Consider the following ideas.
What Is Network Monitoring?Question: What Is Network Monitoring?The terms network monitoring and network management are both often used in Information Technology (IT). What is network monitoring?Answer: Network monitoring refers to the practice of overseeing the operation of a computer network using specialized management software tools. Network monitoring systems are used to ensure availability and overall performance of computers (hosts) and network services. These systems are typically employed on larger scale corporate and university IT networks. Key Features in Network MonitoringA network monitoring system is capable of detecting and reporting failures of devices or connections. It normally measures the processor (CPU) utilization of hosts, the network bandwidth utilization of links, and other aspects of operation. It will often send messages (sometimes called watchdog messages) over the network to each host to verify it is responsive to requests. When failures, unacceptably slow response, or other unexpected behavior is detected, these systems send additional messages called alerts to designated locations (such as a management server, an email address, or a phone number) to notify system administrators. Network Monitoring Software Tools The ping program is one example of a basic network monitoring program. Ping is a software tool available on most computers that sends Internet Protocol (IP) test messages between two hosts. Anyone on the network can run these basic ping tests to verify the connection between two computers is working and also measure the current connection performance. While ping is useful in some situations, more sophisticated network monitoring systems exist. These software programs are designed for use by professional administrators of larger computer networks. Examples of these software packages are HP Openview and LANDesk.
One specific type of network monitoring system is designed to monitor the availability of Web servers. For larger enterprises that use a pool of Web servers distributed worldwide, these systems help to quickly detect problems at any location. Web site monitoring services available on the Internet include mon.itor.us.
Suggested Networking Projects for StudentsQuestion: Suggested Networking Projects for StudentsHigh school and university students of computer networking are sometimes asked to complete class projects as part of their course work. Networking projects may be created by the instructor or ones that the students choose for themselves.Answer: If you're looking for ideas, consider the following types of networking projects: Network Design You can propose new layouts and specifications for large computer networks such as those used by schools, businesses, Internet Service Providers, and datacenters. You can also study the design of existing networks (such as those of your school) and find ways to improve them. Network Performance You can measure the performance characteristics of local area network (LAN) and Internet connections under varying conditions:
Availability Concepts for Networks and Systems In computer hardware and software, availability refers to the overall "uptime" of the system (or specific features of the system). For example, a personal computer may be deemed "available" for use if its operating system is booted and running.
While related to availability, the concept of reliability means something different. Reliability refers to the general likelihood of a failure occurring in a running system. A perfectly reliable system will also enjoy 100% availability, but when failures do occur, availability can be affected in different ways depending on the nature of the problem.
Serviceability affects availability as well. In a serviceable system, failures can be detected and repaired more quickly than in a unserviceable system, meaning less downtime per incident on average.
Availability Levels The standard way to define levels or "classes" of availability in a computer network system is a "scale of nines." For example, 99% uptime translates to two nines of availability, 99.9% uptime to three nines, and so on.
The following table illustrates the meaning of this scale. It expresses each level in terms of the maximum amount of downtime per (non leap) year that could be tolerated to meet the uptime requirement. It also lists a few examples of the type of systems being built that commonly meet these requirements.
ClassUptimeDowntime per Year (maximum)Examples 190.0%36 d 12 hpersonal clients, experimental systems 299.0%87 h 36 mentry-level business systems 399.9%8 h 46 mtop Internet Service Providers, mainstream business systems 499.99%52 m 33 shigh-end business systems, data centers 599.999%5 m 15 scarrier-grade telephony; health systems; banking 699.9999%31.5 smilitary defense systems When talking about availability levels, note that the overall window or time frame involved (weeks, months, years, etc.) should be specified to give the strongest meaning. A product that achieves 99.9% uptime over a period of one or more years has proven itself to a much greater degree than one whose availability has only been measured for a few weeks.
Network Disaster Recovery
IT professionals have recognized the importance of disaster recovery for decades. Both the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001 and recent IT technology trends have led to more widespread awareness of disaster recovery and other business continuity issues. Organizations face some tough choices, though, in planning for the future.
What Is Disaster Recovery? In IT, disaster recovery involves a series of actions to be taken in the event of major unplanned outages to minimize their adverse effects. Disasters can result from events such as
Disaster Recovery PlanningThe best approach to disaster recovery focuses primarily on planning and prevention. While the damage resulting from the events of 11 September could not have been anticipated, many other more typical disaster scenarios can be analyzed in detail. For those events that can't be prevented, an IT disaster recovery plan takes into account the need to
Introduction to SONET
The Synchronous Optical NETwork (SONET) standard for fiber optic networks was developed in the mid-1980s. It remains in widespread use today. In a nutshell, SONET allows multiple technologies and vendor products to interoperate by defining standard physical network interfaces.
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In Europe, the term Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) refers to essentially the same standard as SONET. This article uses the term "SONET" to refer to the common characteristics of SONET/SDH. Applications SONET was originally designed for the public telephone network. In the early 1980's, the forced breakup of AT&T in the United States created numerous regional telephone companies, and these companies quickly encountered difficulties in networking with each other. Fiber optic cabling already prevailed for long distance voice traffic transmissions, but the existing networks proved unnecessarily expensive to build and difficult to extend for so-called long haul data and/or video traffic.
The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) successfully devised SONET as the new standard for these applications. Like Ethernet, SONET provides a "layer 1" or interface layer technology (also termed physical layer in the OSI model). As such, SONET acts a carrier of multiple higher-level application protocols. For example, Internet Protocol (IP) packets can be configured to flow over SONET.
Technology SONET commonly transmits data at speeds between 155 megabits per second (Mbps) and 2.5 gigabits per second (Gbps). To build these high-bandwidth data streams, SONET multiplexes together channels having bandwidth as low as 64 kilobits per second (Kpbs) into data frames sent at fixed intervals.
Compared to Ethernet cabling that spans distances up to100 meters (328 feet), SONET fiber typically runs much further. Even short reach links span up to 2 kilometers (1.2 miles); intermediate and long reach links cover dozens of kilometers.
Posted By:
Md. Rashead Hasan Akash
Mob: 01195-451502
General information Information and communication technology spending in 2005 IT spans a wide variety of areas that include but are not limited to things such as processes, computer software, computer hardware, programming languages, and data constructs. In short, anything that renders data, information or perceived knowledge in any visual format whatsoever, via any multimedia distribution mechanism, is considered part of the domain space known as Information Technology (IT).
IT professionals perform a variety of functions (IT Disciplines/Competencies) that range from installing applications to designing complex computer networks and information databases. A few of the duties that IT professionals perform may include data management, networking, engineering computer hardware, database and software design, as well as management and administration of entire systems. Information technology is starting to spread farther than the conventional personal computer and network technology, and more into integrations of other technologies such as the use of cell phones, televisions, automobiles, and more, which is increasing the demand for such jobs.
In the recent past, the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology and the Association for Computing Machinery have collaborated to form accreditation and curriculum standards[3] for degrees in Information Technology as a distinct field of study as compared[4] to Computer Science and Information Systems today. SIGITE[5] is the ACM working group for defining these standards. The Worldwide IT services revenue totaled $763 billion in 2009.
How to build a career in Computer Networking
Many view computer networking as an attractive career field. A few years ago, networking was one of the hottest fields around. Some claim now as then that a serious shortage of qualified people to fill these networking jobs exists. On the other hand, some also view networking as a relatively easy way to land an attractive position with a fast-growing company.
Debates over the actual extent of any job shortages aside, networking involves mostly hard work, and competition for the high-quality positions will always be strong. Continue reading to learn more about beginning or expanding a career in networking, and watch for valuable job-hunting tips that also apply to many other types of technical careers.
Some Words About Job Titles Several types of professional positions exist in computer networking, each with varying salaries and long-term career potential. Unfortunately, job titles in networking, and in Information Technology (IT) generally, often lead to confusion among beginners and experienced folks alike. Bland, vague or overly bombastic titles often fail to describe the actual work assignments of a person in this field. The basic job titles one sees for computer networking and networking-related positions include
- Network Administrator
- Network (Systems) Engineer
- Network (Service) Technician
- Network Programmer/Analyst
- Network/Information Systems Manager
"Candidate will be responsible for analysis, installation and configuration of company networks. Daily activities include monitoring network performance, troubleshooting problems and maintaining network security. Other activities include assisting customers with operating systems and network adapters, configuring routers, switches, and firewalls, and evaluating third-party tools." Needless to say, a person early in their career often lacks experience in a majority of these categories. Most employers do not expect candidates to possess in-depth knowledge of all areas listed in the job posting, though, so a person should remain undeterred by the long, sweeping job descriptions they will inevitably encounter The job function of a Network Engineer differs little from that of a Network Administrator. Company A may use one title while Company B uses the other to refer to essentially the same position. Some companies even use the two titles interchangeably. Firms making a distinction between the two often stipulate that administrators focus on the day-to-day management of networks, whereas network engineers focus primarily on system upgrades, evaluating vendor products, security testing, and so on.
A Network Technician tends to focus more on the setup, troubleshooting, and repair of specific hardware and software products. Service Technicians in particular often must travel to remote customer sites to perform "field" upgrades and support. Again, though, some firms blur the line between technicians and engineers or administrators.
Network Programmer/Analysts generally write software programs or scripts that aid in network analysis, such as diagnostics or monitoring utilities. They also specialize in evaluating third-party products and integrating new software technologies into an existing network environment or to build a new environment.
Managers supervise the work of administrators, engineers, technicians, and/or programmers. Network / Information Systems Managers also focus on longer-range planning and strategy considerations.
Salaries for networking positions depend on many factors such as the hiring organization, local market conditions, a person's experience and skill level, and so on.
Information Technology OutsourcingIn the United States, corporations plan to outsource many thousands of Information Technology (IT) jobs to outside firms. Most of these jobs will belong to so-called offshore organizations in India or Southeast Asia. The media buzz and corporate momentum around IT offshoring and outsourcing continues and shows no signs of abating.
As a current Information Technology professional in the U.S., or a student considering a future career in IT, outsourcing is a business trend you must fully understand. Don't expect the trend to reverse any time in the forseeable future, but don't feel powerless to cope with the changes either.
Changes Coming with Information Technology Outsourcing Ten years ago, workers were attracted to the Information Technology field given the
- challenging and rewarding work
- good pay
- numerous opportunities, the promise of future growth and long term job stability
- The nature of the work will change dramatically with offshoring; the future may be equally rewarding, or it may prove wholly undesirable depending on one's individual interests and goals.
- Information Technology salaries will increase in the countries that receive outsourcing contracts and may decrease in the U.S.
- Likewise, the total number of IT jobs will increase in some countries and may decrease in the U.S, much future growth will happen outside the U.S, and job stability will remain unclear everywhere until the outsourcing business models mature
How to Cope with Information Technology Outsourcing IT workers in the U.S. are already witnessing some impacts of IT outsourcing, but the future impacts will possibly be even greater. What can you do to prepare? Consider the following ideas.
- Don't Panic - The prospect of job searches or career changes can be quite stressful to Information Technology workers. IT students may understandably begin to question their choice of career. However, the more stress and worry a person takes on, paradoxically the more difficult it becomes to successfully reach their career goals.
- Don't Wait for The Upturn - So-called experts predicted a sharp upturn in the U.S. economy and increase in IT jobs for several years, that largely did not happen. Expect that IT will operate in the current climate with respect to outsourcing for the foreseeable future.
- Become a Generalist - Years ago in Information Technology, specialization was king. Those with the heaviest technical backgrounds and loftiest job titles, like Enterprise Architects, commanded the highest salaries. Nowadays, a person is much better positioned if they are skilled in multiple areas of both technology and the business side of IT. Flexibility is king.
- Look to Smaller Organizations - Fortune 500 companies will primarily pursue offshoring ventures but smaller firms less so. Outsourcing creates a substantial amount of overhead before the gains kick in, and small companies can't afford to pay that price for the foreseeable future.
- Start Your Own Business - Uncertain economic times, and occasions of industry change, are often the best ones for starting a new business, due to lower prices for capital, less competition, and the natural emergence of big new market opportunities. All it takes is an entrepenurial attitude and a few good ideas.
What Is Network Monitoring?Question: What Is Network Monitoring?The terms network monitoring and network management are both often used in Information Technology (IT). What is network monitoring?Answer: Network monitoring refers to the practice of overseeing the operation of a computer network using specialized management software tools. Network monitoring systems are used to ensure availability and overall performance of computers (hosts) and network services. These systems are typically employed on larger scale corporate and university IT networks. Key Features in Network MonitoringA network monitoring system is capable of detecting and reporting failures of devices or connections. It normally measures the processor (CPU) utilization of hosts, the network bandwidth utilization of links, and other aspects of operation. It will often send messages (sometimes called watchdog messages) over the network to each host to verify it is responsive to requests. When failures, unacceptably slow response, or other unexpected behavior is detected, these systems send additional messages called alerts to designated locations (such as a management server, an email address, or a phone number) to notify system administrators. Network Monitoring Software Tools The ping program is one example of a basic network monitoring program. Ping is a software tool available on most computers that sends Internet Protocol (IP) test messages between two hosts. Anyone on the network can run these basic ping tests to verify the connection between two computers is working and also measure the current connection performance. While ping is useful in some situations, more sophisticated network monitoring systems exist. These software programs are designed for use by professional administrators of larger computer networks. Examples of these software packages are HP Openview and LANDesk.
One specific type of network monitoring system is designed to monitor the availability of Web servers. For larger enterprises that use a pool of Web servers distributed worldwide, these systems help to quickly detect problems at any location. Web site monitoring services available on the Internet include mon.itor.us.
Suggested Networking Projects for StudentsQuestion: Suggested Networking Projects for StudentsHigh school and university students of computer networking are sometimes asked to complete class projects as part of their course work. Networking projects may be created by the instructor or ones that the students choose for themselves.Answer: If you're looking for ideas, consider the following types of networking projects: Network Design You can propose new layouts and specifications for large computer networks such as those used by schools, businesses, Internet Service Providers, and datacenters. You can also study the design of existing networks (such as those of your school) and find ways to improve them. Network Performance You can measure the performance characteristics of local area network (LAN) and Internet connections under varying conditions:
- creating and/or using software tools that measure average and maximum bandwidth and latency of connections
- measuring performance differences between different types of network hardware (such as routers from different manufacturers) or operating systems (such as between Windows and Linux clients)
- comparing / contrasting the performance of software applications like Web servers
- modifying open source software applications to utilize parallel programming and distributed systems
- creating and/or using network sniffers
- testing the effectiveness of antivirus software to detect network worms (and the performance of this software)
Availability Concepts for Networks and Systems In computer hardware and software, availability refers to the overall "uptime" of the system (or specific features of the system). For example, a personal computer may be deemed "available" for use if its operating system is booted and running.
While related to availability, the concept of reliability means something different. Reliability refers to the general likelihood of a failure occurring in a running system. A perfectly reliable system will also enjoy 100% availability, but when failures do occur, availability can be affected in different ways depending on the nature of the problem.
Serviceability affects availability as well. In a serviceable system, failures can be detected and repaired more quickly than in a unserviceable system, meaning less downtime per incident on average.
Availability Levels The standard way to define levels or "classes" of availability in a computer network system is a "scale of nines." For example, 99% uptime translates to two nines of availability, 99.9% uptime to three nines, and so on.
The following table illustrates the meaning of this scale. It expresses each level in terms of the maximum amount of downtime per (non leap) year that could be tolerated to meet the uptime requirement. It also lists a few examples of the type of systems being built that commonly meet these requirements.
ClassUptimeDowntime per Year (maximum)Examples 190.0%36 d 12 hpersonal clients, experimental systems 299.0%87 h 36 mentry-level business systems 399.9%8 h 46 mtop Internet Service Providers, mainstream business systems 499.99%52 m 33 shigh-end business systems, data centers 599.999%5 m 15 scarrier-grade telephony; health systems; banking 699.9999%31.5 smilitary defense systems When talking about availability levels, note that the overall window or time frame involved (weeks, months, years, etc.) should be specified to give the strongest meaning. A product that achieves 99.9% uptime over a period of one or more years has proven itself to a much greater degree than one whose availability has only been measured for a few weeks.
Network Disaster Recovery
IT professionals have recognized the importance of disaster recovery for decades. Both the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001 and recent IT technology trends have led to more widespread awareness of disaster recovery and other business continuity issues. Organizations face some tough choices, though, in planning for the future.
What Is Disaster Recovery? In IT, disaster recovery involves a series of actions to be taken in the event of major unplanned outages to minimize their adverse effects. Disasters can result from events such as
- hacker attacks
- computer viruses
- electric power failures
- underground cable cuts or failures
- fire, flood, earthquake, and other natural disasters at a facility
- mistakes in system administration
Disaster Recovery PlanningThe best approach to disaster recovery focuses primarily on planning and prevention. While the damage resulting from the events of 11 September could not have been anticipated, many other more typical disaster scenarios can be analyzed in detail. For those events that can't be prevented, an IT disaster recovery plan takes into account the need to
- detect the outages or other disaster effects as quickly as possible
- notify any affected parties so that they can take action
- isolate the affected systems so that damage cannot spread
- repair the critical affected systems so that operations can be resumed
Introduction to SONET
The Synchronous Optical NETwork (SONET) standard for fiber optic networks was developed in the mid-1980s. It remains in widespread use today. In a nutshell, SONET allows multiple technologies and vendor products to interoperate by defining standard physical network interfaces.
zSB(3,3)Sponsored Links Fiber Optic IntercomIntercom systems using Fiber Optic for long distance or high security.LiteLink.com
Downloadable Network+Get Network+ training right now: Download video, audio, and more!www.ProfessorMesser.com
VOIP and the InternetGet full and free analysis of Voip Applicationswww.InternetEvolution.com
In Europe, the term Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) refers to essentially the same standard as SONET. This article uses the term "SONET" to refer to the common characteristics of SONET/SDH. Applications SONET was originally designed for the public telephone network. In the early 1980's, the forced breakup of AT&T in the United States created numerous regional telephone companies, and these companies quickly encountered difficulties in networking with each other. Fiber optic cabling already prevailed for long distance voice traffic transmissions, but the existing networks proved unnecessarily expensive to build and difficult to extend for so-called long haul data and/or video traffic.
The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) successfully devised SONET as the new standard for these applications. Like Ethernet, SONET provides a "layer 1" or interface layer technology (also termed physical layer in the OSI model). As such, SONET acts a carrier of multiple higher-level application protocols. For example, Internet Protocol (IP) packets can be configured to flow over SONET.
Technology SONET commonly transmits data at speeds between 155 megabits per second (Mbps) and 2.5 gigabits per second (Gbps). To build these high-bandwidth data streams, SONET multiplexes together channels having bandwidth as low as 64 kilobits per second (Kpbs) into data frames sent at fixed intervals.
Compared to Ethernet cabling that spans distances up to100 meters (328 feet), SONET fiber typically runs much further. Even short reach links span up to 2 kilometers (1.2 miles); intermediate and long reach links cover dozens of kilometers.
Posted By:
Md. Rashead Hasan Akash
Mob: 01195-451502
